:::: Arabic Type Designer & Typographer :: Arabic Type :: Pascal Zoghbi ::::

1. BRIEF HISTORY OF THE TRADITIONAL ARABIC TYPE.
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1.1 The origin of the Arabic script goes back to the first alphabets which were created by the Phoenicians. The Phoenicians were living on the costal area of Lebanon, Palestine and Syria. Since the Phoenicians were business traders sailing the Mediterranean, the alphabet influenced all the Mediterranean nations. The location of the middle-east being in the center of the ancient world (between the east and the west) also played a part in the spreading of the alphabet. So that is why the Phoenician alphabet is the mother of the Latin as well as the Arabic script.

In 1300 BC, the early Phoenician alphabet (consisting of 22 consonants without capitals written from right to left) was born in the city of Byblos on the coastal side of Lebanon. In 1000 BC, the Aramaic alphabet originated from the Phoenician in Aram (Syria and Mesopotamia) which represented the language of the Arameans. In 100 BC, the Nabatean script was born in the city of Petra north of the Red Sea (present day Jordan) and spread all over the middle-east. In 100 AD, the Syriac alphabet (22 letters) was created in Mesopotamia developing also from the Aramaic. Mid of the first century, the early Arabic alphabet was created in Kufa (Iraq). The old kufi (Archaic Kufi) contisted of around 17 lettersforms without diacritic dots or accents. Afterwards the diacritic dots and accents were added in order to help pronunciation and the set of Arabic letters rose to 29 (including the Hamza). With the birth of Islam, the Quran became the reason to reform all the Arabic scripts found in Arabia. One unified well structured Arabic script with 29 letters was developed for the writing of the holy scripts of the Quran in the 7th century AD. Primarily the Quran was written with the Quranic kufi script and later it was written with the Quranic Naskh style. From its creation in the Arabian Peninsula, the Arabic alphabet spread to all of the middle-east, northern Africa and even reached Spain due to Islamic conquests. Since Arabic was the language of the Quran hence of God, all the occupied nations were forced to use the Arabic language.

1.2 Several Arabic calligraphic styles developed from different Arabian cities, different writing techniques and different writing tools. The most known Arabic calligraphic styles are: 1-Kufi (Old Kufi & Ornamented geometric Kufi), 2-Thuluth, 3-Diwani & Diwani Djeli, 4-Naskh, 5-Persian, 6-Ruqaa and 7-Maghrébi.

The name of the Kufi originated from the city Kufa in Iraq. The Naskh and Diwani originated during the Ottoman empire, the Naskh is named after the ‘naskh’ action when the scribes copy Arabic text, while the Diwan name is originated from the political documents named in Arabic ‘Diwan’. The Thuluth name originated from the names of several bamboo sticks that were used as tools for writing. The Ruqaa name originated from the leather paper ‘Ruqaa’ that it was written on. While the Persian style originated its name from the Persian language. Today, most of the text typefaces available are based on the Naskh or the Thuluth Style. The other styles like the Kufi, Diwani and Maghrébi are found in display typefaces.

During the industrial revolution in Europe and the invention of the movable type, several Arabic typefaces were made in France, Italy, England, Germany, Spain and the Netherlands between the 16th century until the 18th century. The first Turkish press using Arabic printing types was found in 1727 in Istanbul and the first Middle-eastern Arabic printing press existed in a Christian monastery in Mount-Lebanon in 1733 where the first Arabic book was published in 1735.

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2. BRIEF ASPECTS OF ARABIC TYPE.
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2.1 The Arabic Alphabet consists of 29 consonants and 11 vocalization marks in the shape of accents. The basic structure of the alphabet can be found in only 19 basic shapes. But since the letters change their shape according to their position in the word (initial, medial, final or isolated) then the set of glyphs will add up to 106 (since 23 letters have 4 alternative shapes and 7 letters have 2 alternative shapes). If we add the 2 indispensable ligatures of Lam Alef then the number will be 108. Finally, since the Arabic alphabet is also used in some non-Arab languages, more alterations to the letter were made to represent all the added non-Arabic phonetics which leaves the number of glyphs at 130. Moreover, the number of glyphs can increase even more if we also count all kinds of combinations within the letters if the typeface need to fully mimic the calligraphic hand written Arabic script. So according to each typeface, the number of glyphs can start with 130 and end in hundreds.

2.2 The following image shows the 4 developing layers of the Arabic script. The first line shows only the basic shapes of the letters. The second line illustrates the added diacritic dots on some letters which require it. The third line adds the vocalization marks for better pronunciation. The final line shows a decorated sentence where some decorative elements were added to the script to make it more elegant or holy. Usually in the everyday text only the diacritic dots and some vocalization marks will be added to the script. The decorative elements will only be added to display words or sentences.

The four typographic elements of the Arabic script are: 1. Basic letterforms, 2. Diacritic Dots, 3. Vocalization marks 4. Decorative elements (without mentioning the numerals, punctuation marks and symbols).

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3. THE MODERN HISTORY OF ARABIC TYPE FROM THE 30’S TILL PRESENT.
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In 1936 and 1938, the Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo held a conference for the purpose of the standardization of non-Arabic phonemes due to translation from English, French or other languages. The solution was to add some diacritic dots on some letters and give it the proper phoneme. In 1945, the Academy launched a worldwide competition to reform and simplify Arabic to make it easier to learn (both to read and to write it). Between 1947 and 1958 many proposals were submitted to the academy but none of them was accepted. In between 1955 and 1959, the academy assessed the last batch of submitted projects and also rejected all of them. The committee then decided to limit the changes or simplification to basic three typographic rules: 1- Standardization of additional Arabic letters that represent non-Arabic sounds. 2- Vocalization marks were made obligatory for educational books. 3- The Arabic character set was reduced from 300 to 169 letters, which only consists of the basic variation forms of the letter and some indispensable ligatures and letter connections.
It was the period after World War II and most of the Arab nations were getting their independence from the European colonial powers and building their own infrastructure. The competition of the Academy of the Arabic Language reflects the educational, social and technological development in the Arab nations and the need for a new simplified Arabic script that fits with the new type techniques then (i.e. the typewriter and the typesetting machine with movable type).
The projects were categorized into three groups: 1- Projects that broke all the characteristics of the Arabic script and used the Latin letters. 2- Projects that converted the vocalization forms of the vowels into extra letters. 3- Projects that proposed a single letterform per letter and making the Arabic detached.

The following projects are the most interesting proposals:

3.1 The Unified Arabic typeface by Nasri Khatar (1911-1998) from Lebanon was proposed in 1947. Architect, Type Designer, Inventor, Painter, Sculptor, Poet. A dual American-Lebanese national, Mr. Khattar was an Arabic consultant to IBM in the fifties, and architect, Arabic calligrapher, and Arabist to Arab-American Oil Company (Aramco) in New York City, 1950-1957. During this time, he made innumerable calligraphic works for both Aramco and the Arabs. He received a Ford Foundation grant for the years 1958-1961 to promote his ‘Unified Arabic, UA’ system. Unified Arabic is Mr. Khattar’s Arabic type system that simplifies the printing and teaching of Arabic, Urdu, Farsi, and other languages utilizing the Arabic alphabet.
As he continued to work on his Unified Arabic, Mr. Khattar designed new Arabic typefaces, practiced architecture, and lectured at the American University of Beirut.
In 1986, Reverend Dennis Hilgendorg and Dr. Ben Wood, Director of Educational Research at Columbia University, nominated Mr. Khattar for the Nobel Peace Prize for his life’s visionary achievements and their vast implications for the fields of linguistics, literacy, printing, computers, and telecommunications.

Four characteristics summarize this unique project:
1. A single glyph per letter and detached set type.
2. Each letter is uniquely different from the other and at the same time retaining the Arabic traditional form.
3. The counter forms are wide and open for higher legibility especially in small sizes.
4. The type was designed with a large loop- height (x-height) and low ascenders and descenders.

3.2 The Latinizing Arabic by Yahya Bouteméne in 1952. The project consisted of constructing the Arabic letter from the Latin alphabet. This project use also suggested that the type will be detached with Latin typographic structures like x-height, ascenders, descenders and spacing and kerning to mention but a few. But this proposal broke all the traditions of the Arabic type and was purely latinized which can never be accepted.

3.3 The Vocalization Marks as extra letters by Ali Al Gharim in 1952. The project suggested that each vocalization mark be drawn as additional letters to the Arabic script and be added within the writing.

3.4 Yakout type by Nahib Jaroudi from Linotype in 1956.Yakout was designed in a similar manner to Arabic typewriter fonts created during this period: used a limited range of letterforms to represent the full Arabic character set. The resultant style of type design became known as ‘Simplified Arabic’.

The initial and medial glyphs of each letter were replaced with one glyph, and the final and isolated glyphs of each letter were replaced or merged into one glyph (except for few letters like the “Ain” where all initial, medial, final and isolated forms were kept since they are differently drawn). This enabled the character set to be reduced and made it more compatible with the Arabic type setting machines back then and the typewriters. The font was produced for hot-metal typesetting, being specifically intended to function as a newspaper text. With the dual intention of fitting the Arabic script onto a Linotype line-casting machine for setting type for rotary printing, and of maximizing keying speeds in creating copy for daily newspapers, much effort was concentrated on reducing the normal Arabic character set of over 100 characters.

The provenance can be seen from an interesting on-line article by Fiona Ross entitled “Non-Latin Type Design at Linotype”.

3.5 The ASV-CODAR (Arabe Standard Voyellé – Codage Arabe) by Lakhdar Ghazal from Morocco in 1958. This project met the same fate as all other proposals and was rejected by the Academy in Cairo. However, this was the only project that underwent development and production because it was adopted by the Maroccan government which encouraged the establishment of the Institut d’Etude et de Recherches pour l’Arabisation in 1960. The aim of the typeface was to make the Arabic type usable in an easy way in all modern media. Nowadays, this font is the only digitized typeface from all of the ones submitted to the Academy thanks to Dr. Ghazal and the Moroccan government.

The reason why ASV-Codar was developed is that, unlike the previously mentioned proposals, it solved the technical problem of simplifying the script and at the same time respected the spirit of the Arabic script. Consequently, this project was a social and technological achievement.

The Characteristics of ASV-Codar are:
1. One drawn shape per basic letter set but which can at the same time accommodate a connecting or ending shape according to its position in the word. This solution saved the type from being detached by making the number of glyphs drawn to the basic regular letters.
2. Three kinds of ending tails that fit all of the letters. These ending tails are added to letters that needed them if they are positioned at the end of the word.
3. The Vocalization marks are placed on the connecting glyph (Kashida) between the letters and not on, above or below the letterforms. This solution was conceived in order not to draw each letter several times with different vocalization marks with it.

3.6 The Lebanese Type by Saïd Akl in Lebanon in the 60s. Saïd Akl is a proud Lebanese linguist, poet and philosopher. He is a true Lebanese person. He loves Lebanon and knows its history well. He considers the Lebanese the ancestors of the Phoenicians and that we must use the Latin alphabet since it is a direct descendant of the Phoenician alphabet and not the Arabic script which is full of problems and complicated. His idea was applied in the creation of the Lebanese Type that can be a universal type for all the languages of the world and not only Arabic. Since Saïd Akl was not a type designer, he just took the typeface ‘Times’ (whish is the most comman Latin Serif on all computer platfonms) and constructed his alphabet. Saïd Akl expressed his political and social thoughts about Lebanon with a new way of writing Lebanese. In this period of his life he was a very famous poet and philosopher in all of the Arab world. He wanted to express that Lebanon is a nation that speaks the Arabic language but it is not an Arab nation. That is why he made his new type based on the Latin script and not the Arabic although both scripts descended from the Phoenician Alphabet. He wanted a Lebanon with less connection to the Arab Islamic world. He wanted a unique type and language for Lebanon.

You can also read an article about the topic on NOW Lebanon website.The Lebanese Type, Saïd Akl.

3.6.1 The Theory of the Lebanese Type:
True creation is by no means the fruit of chance, but rather the child of purpose. That is what Akl was unknowingly set to prove with a brand new revolutionary concept, the ‘Lebanese Type.’ The idea originated in his youth when he wondered about the point of having such a complicated Arabic alphabet. It was first put into practice in the early 1930s. However, it was not until 1961 that it took its final shape.
Saïd Akl found it hard to choose a specific source of inspiration since he was changing the very concept of the alphabet. Its basis was that each letter had one and only one form and pronunciation, that is, each phoneme had only one physical representation. The ultimate aim was to simplify the multiple forms relating to a sound. Therefore, not only was he driven by the phonetic need, but also by sheer logic: to render the representation easier without altering the phoneme, and the ‘Lebanese Type’ would be accessible to all. After all, doesn’t it all root back to our ancestors, the Phoenicians and their prosperous city Byblos? It watched Cadmus’ alphabet set sail from its shores to the whole world. Hence, almost all the alphabets today are derived from the Phoenician except the Chinese and Japanese which still rely on cryptograms. Thus, we begin to get a rough answer to the question: How come that the Latin alphabet is the ancestor of the ‘Lebanese Type,’ not the Phoenician? Is it not some kind of reason against its homeland? ‘Absolutely not,’ said Akl, ‘for it is all about logic and simplicity of forms.’ Moreover, Latin is not the exclusive source, he was also inspired by the Arabic alphabet and created some more characters from sheer reason to accommodate all the known phonemes.

3.6.2 Characteristics of the Lebanese Type:
1. Avoidance of diacritic dots: The little dots under or above 12 Arabic letters were considered as defying all principles of logic and aesthetics, especially when compared to the Latin. Saïd Akl considered each character as the holder of a self-value that needs no additional shaping or refinement.
2. Avoidance of accents: Accents are far worse than the previous mentioned, for if some letters managed to break the bond of dots, they can never be set free from these indications that determine the grammatical function of Arabic words. Hence, doesn’t switching from accents to their graphic representation constitute a more suitable solution for Arabic.
3. Uniformity in the size of the letters: In Arabic, letters start above, on or below any given horizontal line. Furthermore, the width of each letter varies slightly, which leads to great difficulties in writing. Hence, the ‘Lebanese Type’ found an elegant solution, which consists of only two closely shaped representations (upper and lowercase) for each letter.
4. Separated or detached letters: Letter representation in Arabic differs given their position in the word. The new type separated them, thus giving each character its own personality and value. Uniqueness in the relation between shape and character seems absolutely necessary in order to avoid the chaos of too many forms of one letter.
5. One letter for each vowel and phoneme: It is obvious that, in the ‘Lebanese Type,’ there is no such thing as the double vowels sounds of Latin since its basic principles is based on the uniqueness of each character representing only one phoneme. That is, one and only one character for each phoneme.
6. Letters spirit as the Latin: As mentioned earlier, Saïd Akl’s main source of inspiration was the Latin Alphabet. Thus, it stands to reason that most of the typeface looks Latin even in the letters that Saïd invented as it turned out that their shapes were the most obedient to the rule of harmony.

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During the 60s until the late 80s, the transition from analogous to digital, due to the computer’s limitations at that time the Arabic script was constantly faced with problems like the connections of the letters, the limited character set and the right to left direction of writing. It was not the concept of the emerging computer programming technology as such that caused the problems. Certainly there were technical limitations, mainly related to the display and more acutely to printing technology. But the real problem was - and is - the lack of knowledge of, curiosity about and to some extent even love for the Arabic writing system in the western industry and among western-trained Arabs – according to Thomas Milo of DecoType.

That is why the Arabic was – and is – always mainly discussed in terms of the need for simplification. Paradoxically, after the mid 90s till our present day, computer technology has evolved in a way to find solutions for all of the problems. There is the extended Arabic character set of Unicode and the invention of smart font technology like OpenType Font supporting Arabic type on all major computer platforms (Mac OSX, Windows NT and later) that handles most of the problems.

Unicode extends the coverage of Arabic to include Persian, Urdu - in fact theoretically all other Arabic-based languages. A great advantage of Unicode is that it blends Arabic seamlessly into texts typeset in any other script – Latin, Russian, Chinese, you name it.

However, Unicode only defines abstract, nominal letters – no more. It does not define typographic technology, let alone solve typographic problems. Therefore, OpenType technology was developed to deal with the typographical tsunami caused by Unicode and global computing in general. Improved facilities for Arabic were a by-product, not a design goal.

3.7 DecoType (DT), Thomas Milo, The Netherlands in 1985. Before the invention of OpenType, some companies pioneered solutions for Arabic in the context of global computing and Unicode. The company DecoType (DT) represented by Thomas Milo is an example: he and his team (including Peter Somers and Mirjam Somers) invented the Arabic Calligraphic Engine ACE (around 1985). In fact, ACE controlled the first Smart Font, based on the traditional ruqah style.

While the early Windows font technology was too primitive in the early ‘90’s to deal with Arabic typesetting, an interim solution was found. At the request of Microsoft a much simplified and compromised Naskh and Thuluth were developed for use with its fixed font tables, since MS could not - yet - cope with complex Arabic. These fonts were NOT driven by ACE. The P in DTP was a pun to mark this low-quality, non-ACE derivative. DTP Naskh and Thuluth were made around 1992-3.

Almost simultaneously Microsoft Middle East Product Development Department (MEPD) asked DecoType to create ACE-based OLE-servers for DT Ruqah and DT Naskh. This all happened well before the now ubiquitous OpenType was even conceived (Microsoft as a company wasn’t yet connected to the internet in these days!). DecoType’s ACE technology became the de facto proof of concept for smart font technology, paving the way for what was to become OpenType.

Real ACE fonts were marketed as DT OLE-servers (now Tasmeem fonts), NON-ACE fonts by DecoType are marketed as DTP fonts (PostScript, TrueType, OpenType). ACE was developed to mimic existing high-end Arabic typography – which in turn is, of course, deeply rooted in the calligraphic tradition.

Thomas Milo served as an Arabic speaking Officer in a Dutch army unit detached to UNIFIL in Southern Lebanon. His background is in Slavic and Turkic linguistics, plus Arabic in a supporting role. Before and after Lebanon he travelled extensively in Eastern Europe and the Middle East.

For some impressions of his stint with UNIFIL, here’s an interview and literature:
Thomas Milo on UNIFIL
Vredesmacht in Libanon

After his return from the Lebanon he discovered the technical problems in producing accurate Arabic typography. As a linguistic scholar, he decided to build his own technology for his Arabic typesetting. He wanted to create the Arabic that he loved and not the badly digitized Arabic that is found in the market. Gradually it dawned on him that only a solid understanding of Arabic calligraphy provides the key to the solution. After an initial failure with naskh script that he found too dazzling and complex, he analysed ruqah instead. Work on naskh started 10 years later and took another 10 years to complete.

With hindsight one can conclude that the project of his team was the first and for a long time the only one to try and document the reality of Arabic as it has functioned over the centuries.

The illustration shows the structural difference between ACE-driven (Tasmeem) and OT Table-driven DTP Naskh. The Tasmeem examples follow the traditional structure, the DTP examples are low-grade hybrids – neither traditional nor innovative.

In 2007 DecoType with association with Winsoft launched Tasmeem.

According to the WinSoft-DecoType sales brochures, the Tasmeem concept is a dream come true. It integrates traditional calligraphy with modern typefaces, giving everybody the freedom they want. It makes Adobe InDesign Middle Eastern Version the most comprehensive Arabic design tool in the industry. Tasmeem provides designers and publishers of Arabic books the indispensable high-quality typesetting for literary and academic productions. Tasmeem offers professional tools to shape prose, poetry, traditional and educational texts…

Continue reading at the Winsoft website or at the “Calligraphy written by hand or set on the computer” post on my blog. I addition, this month’s cover story in Saudi Aramco World magazine is dedicated to Tasmeem.

3.8 The Simplified Arabic Type by Mourad Boutros in The United Kingdom in 1993. Boutros also focused on the idea that Arabic must embark on the process of becoming detached like the journey the Latin script took hundreds of years before. He made a font based on the Naskh structure with two phases. The first phase will be used firstly in the Arab nations for several years until the people are familiar with it, and afterwards they will start using phase two where the letters are completely detached. Phase one is also based on one shape per letter but the letters touch each other on the baseline with close tracking. Phase two is simply making the tracking wider, hence the letters will be detached.

What is interesting about Mourad’s proposal is that it took into account a transitional phase. So he was truly trying to solve a social problem without ignoring the technical aspect (to make the Arabic easier to handle by the computer and the software which are initially built only for the Latin script). He wanted to make the Arabic detached and simple but at the same time he planned the acceptance of the type by the people.

3.9 The Mutamathil Type by Saad Abulhab in The United States of America in 1999. Saad is the latest person to try to develop detached Arabic type in recent years. He also focused on the idea that the type must be detached but what he newly introduced is a bi-directional type suggesting that Arabic can be written from right to left as usual and (if necessary) can be also written and read from left to right as the Latin alphabet. So his approach will not only solve the problem of connected letters and changing letterforms according to their position, but also the problem of having special Arabic software or plug-in that enables the writing from right to left. The questions remain as to the limit of simplification and if the Arabic people would accept the font and are able to read it. The questions remain as to the limit of simplification and if the Arabic people would accept the font and are able to read it. The letters in the bi-directional “Mutamathil Mutlaq” type are symmetrical and geometric with shapes that are mirrored in the middle of the letter, which makes the letters look so stiff and rigid with respect to the flowing cursive aspect of the Arabic script.

Personally I think that the idea behind the font is intelligent, but the design of the letters is not good at all. The letters are constructed out of geometric shapes to such an extent that it made them lose all the Arabic characteristics.The problem is that Saad only solved the technical issue of the Arabic script but completely destroyed the historical and aesthetical value of the Arabic.

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4. WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF ARABIC TYPEFACES?
The following question was asked in the TypoGraphic Beirut 2005 conference that took place in April in the Lebanese American University.
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There are three main directions in the Arabic type design word nowadays. The first direction is represented by Arabic type designers and typographers who are working on simplifying the Arabic script and making it detached. The second direction is backed up by conservative traditional Arabic type designers who state that the Arabic does not need to be simplified any more since the technology is now well developed to accommodate all the needs/problems of an Arabic calligraphic typeface. The third direction is represented by several contemporary Arabic type designers who’s work deals with making modern Arabic typefaces which are legible and friendly to the everyday applications or to the need of their clients. An example of the first group is Saad Abulhab, the second group is Thomas Milo and the third group are several independent Arabic type designers (like Nadine Chahine, Titus Nemeth, Tim Holloway, Abbar Yassar, Ihsan Al-Hammouri, Mohamed Hacen, several others and surely myself) that are creating new modern Arabic typefaces. Names and links of know independent Arabic type designers and Arabic type foundries will be listed in the section that follows.

Whatever the direction or the intentions behind each new Arabic typeface, there is a big demand for new Arabic fonts. New Arabic fonts are need for: 1. everyday Arabic graphic design and typography projects, 2. corporate Arabic fonts for Arabic established companies or newspapers, and 3. Arabic companion fonts for existing Latin fonts.

Professional graphic designers and students are always asking for new Arabic fonts. Before the launch of Adobe InDesign ME versions and the development of the OpenType Arabic fonts, most of the Arabic typographer used Quark AXt and were limited to AXt Arabic fonts. Until now the AXt fonts are the most used even-though the users of Quark AXt is diminishing. The reason for that is there are not so may new OpenType Arabic fonts for them to use instead of the AXt fonts. Over the last few years, the awareness about Arabic type and the need for new fonts was translated in the rise of Arabic Type Foundries and young Contemporary independent Arabic Type Designers. From the past three years there was Nadine Chahine, Titus Nemeth and myself Pascal Zoghbi who have graduated with Masters in Type Design and are specialized in Arabic type. All three of us now are working and developing new Arabic fonts that are starting to appear in the Market.

The Khatt Foundation ‘Typographic Matchmaking’ project is an example about the need for Arabic type companions for existing Latin typefaces (you can read more about the Typographic Matchmaking project and the Khatt foundation in the ‘Typographic Matchmaking: Arabic type with a Dutch flavor.’ post on my blog or on the Khatt Foundation website). This is due to the fact that many publications in the Arabic nations are bi-lingual or tri-lingual (Arabic, English and french). Another reasons is that most of the international companies how are opening new branches in any of the Arab nations need an Arabic corporate font that will work with their own Latin corporate font.

Other important typographic events that contributed to the growing awareness of Arabic type and calligraphy are: Typo.Graphic.Beirut conference, The Kitabat conference, The Linotype’s First Arabic Type Competition and Khatt Kufi & Kaffiya symposium.

Corporate Arabic fonts are also in need for new Arabic companies how are building there new identity. Some examples will be Banks, Communication companies, Organizations and others. Furthermore, all of the Arabic newspapers at the present time are asking for corporate fonts. Old Arabic newspapers are renewing their layouts and asking for new modern Arabic fonts, and new rising Arabic newspapers are creating their young fresh identity with new contemporary corporate Arabic fonts.

At the present moment the Arabic type industry is having a big boom and it is going to stay like this for a while (at least several years). The awarness about Arabic type is growing in the Arab nations and the number of proffesional Arabic type designers is also growing.

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5. INDEPENDENT ARABIC TYPE DESIGNERS AND ARABIC TYPE FOUNDRIES.
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Traditional established Arabic type foundries:
Boutros (Mourad Boutros)
Sakkal (Mamoun Sakkal)
AvantType (Habib Khoury)
DecoType (Thomas Milo,Mirjam Somers & Peter Somers)
Layout (AXt Quark).

New Contampary Arabic Type Designers:
Abbar Yazzar (Syria)
Ihsan Al-Hammouri(Jordan)
Mohamed Hacen (Mauritania)
Nadine Chahine (Lebanon)
Pascal Zoghbi (Lebanon)
Titus Nemeth (Austria)

Non-Arab Arabic Type Designers & Type Foundries that have created Arabic fonts:
Tim Hollaway, Fiona Ross (UK) and John Hudson (Canada)
Kris Holmes(USA) & Chuck Bigelow.
Thomas Milo, Mirjam Somers & Peter Somers (The Netherlands)
Titus Nemeth (Austria)
ParaType (Russia)

International Type Foundries that also develop Arabic fonts beside Latin fonts:
Linotype
Monotype
Adobe
ParaType (Russia)

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Bibliography, References & Illustrations Credits:
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1. Huda Smitshuijzen AbiFarès, Arabic Typography, Saqi Books 2001.

2. Ghan Alani, Initiation Calligraphie Arabe, Aditions Fleurus 2001.

3. Abdelkebir Khatibi, Mohammed Sijelmassi, The Splendour of Islamic Calligraphy, Thames & Hudson 2001.

4. Hassan Massoudy, Calligraphie Arabe Vivante, Flammarion 1999.

5. Arabic Script and Typography, a brief historical overview, by Thomas Milo (in Language Culture Type, international type design in the age of Unicode, ed. John D. Berry, ATypI-Graphis 2002)John D.

6. Arabic for Designers, Mourad Boutros, Mark Batty Publisher 2006.

7. Saad AbulhabThe Mutamathil Type Style, Visible Language 38.3, 2004.

8. Paul Khera, Has Yassar Abbar developed the Arab world’s answer to Univers?, Eye Magazine 50, 2003.

9. Hans Jürg Hunziker, untitle booklet about his arabic type work in Morocco, Switzerland.

10. Rafic Rouhana, Revolution of the Letter with Saiid Akl, Lebanese university, Lebanon 1996.

11. Kamal Al-Baba, Rouh al-khatt al-arabi.

12. http://www.unifiedarabicalphabet.com/

13. http://www.arabetics.com/

14. http://www.decotype.com/

15. http://www.winsoft.eu/

16. http://www.arabicfonts.com/

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Pascal Zoghbi , May 2007.
This article is part of my dissertation that i have wrote during my Master of Design studies at Type]Media 05/06, KABK, The Netherlands.
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